Protection or Free Trade for International Trade Essay

Protection or Free Trade for International Trade - Essay Example While both protectionism and free trade have their own advantages and disadvantages, the cost by far outweighs the benefits of protectionism. The arguments made in favor of protection are that the foreign producers have a â€Å"comparative advantage†, that protection helps the local infant industries flourish, that without protection importers would recklessly â€Å"dump† goods in the market, that protection protects the local producers, and finally, that protection prevents an imbalance of trade. However, each of these â€Å"perceived benefits† of protectionism comes at long-term costs which are far greater than the short-term benefits as explained below. The â€Å"comparative advantage† argument assumes that exporters from other countries have a strong competitive advantage that makes local producers less competitive thereby driving local companies out of business. For example, the labor cost in a developing country compared to that in a developed countr y puts some of the labor intensive local industries at a relative disadvantage. However, by moving to free-trade, countries are able to specialize in some other field where they have a comparative advantage. With such a specialization, the countries are able to take advantage of efficiencies generated from economies of scale and increased output. Also, free international trade increases the size of a firm’s market, resulting in lower average costs and increased productivity, ultimately leading to increased production. In the last few year, while China and India have taken up more work on the labor intensive industries, businesses in the developed countries have been able to actually take advantage of the lower cost and focus on their comparative advantage and invest more on research and development, and other high value added jobs. Besides, the comparative advantages do not last forever. Sooner or later, the advantage fades away. For example, according to Lyndesy Romick of gl obal envision, in China labor accounted for only about 2 percent of a manufacturing company’s total costs in 2000 but 2010 it was closer to 12 percent. That protectionism helps grow the infant industries is a misplaced fallacy. Government subsidizing of a new industry may channel too many resources into that industry, and can render the industry permanently inefficient and vulnerable to competition. Besides, most infant industries are at a competition from domestic competitors and not necessarily only importers. In the last few decades, the "infant" plastics, television, and computer industries have made out very well without any protection. Next, we consider the argument of dumping. Dumping may be defined as the overflow of cheap priced goods in order to under-cut the competition and gain market share. Now, if an importer starts dumping goods in a market, it would actually be good for the customers, and for the government in terms of revenue it makes no change. The only bad effect of dumping is for local producers. Logically, no firm can enjoy â€Å"dumping† as a sustainable strategy – selling below cost in the long-term would drive them to bankruptcy. Also, according to Rothbard, â€Å"†¦historical investigation has not turned up a single case where predatory pricing, when tried, was successful, and there are actually very few cases where it has even been tried.† The next pro-protectionism claim that it protects local producers is also at a huge cost. By protecting the local producers, there is no

Alcoholism Problem Essay Example for Free

Alcoholism Problem Essay Alcoholism is a chronic problem that includes difficulty in controlling drinking, having to drink consistently to get physical independence, being preoccupied with alcohol, and continually using alcohol regardless of problems it causes (Brick, 2004). Alcohol should not be legal in U.S. because it is impacts negatively on health, family, community and on a person’s education. Alcohol drinking is like taking a drug. It is a form of drug addiction and drug abuse. Alcoholism is a worldwide problem that affects many people. Drinking alcohol has negative short and long term effects. Alcoholism has been associated with adverse effects on health, family, community, and education (Marshall, 2000). However, the effects on a person depends on particular factors such as how often and how much alcohol is taken, a person’s age, gender, when a person begun drinking and how long they have been drinking, their health, and family history (Begleiter Kissin, 1996). It is in this regard that alcohol should not be legal in the United States. Alcohol is addictive, and people become addicts end up spending a lot of money on alcohol. It means that when they spend all the money they have on alcohol, they forget their families, and are not able to support the community in anyway. Some resort to stealing to sustain their drinking habit. Alcohol addicts sometimes engage in robbery acts to get the money for drinks. Community becomes at risk of destruction with excessive alcohol consumption allowed. When many people engage in excessive consumption of alcohol, education becomes at risk. People drop out of school, and illiteracy level increase in the community. In addition, the progress and development of any community depends on the health of its people. Therefore, when alcohol puts the health of its members at risk, community suffers in the long run. Alcohol affects both female and male differently. Men who consume alcohol, daily have an increased risk of health risks. Such men can experience cancer and heart disease in the long-term and  low energy to sexual difficulties in the short-term (Brick, 2004). Men are more likely to suffer from liver cirrhosis, and have higher chances of being diagnosed with high blood pressure. Nearly 26.6% of deaths among men of be tween 16 and 24 years old can be attributed to alcohol consumption. Men tend to be more dependent of alcohol (Marshall, 2000). Drinking too much alcohol damages a person’s body organs such as liver, brain, stomach, heart, and intestines. Brain is adversely affected because the brain cells die leading to loss of memory, learning difficulties, brain disorders, confusion, and problems with attention (Blane Leonard, 1999). Liver is highly affected because of the great possibility of developing cancer in the liver, throat and mouth. The stomach may also acquire ulcers. Long-term drinking has also been linked to stroke and heart failure. The nervous system can also experience damage leading to behavioral and physical problems (Dasgupta, 2011). These problems affect health, family, community, and education in the long-term because of expenses associated with alcohol consumption, and possible treatment measures. Alcohol poses many effects on the body such as fertility. It reduces levels of testosterone. As a result, it could decline sperm quantity and quality, and lead to loss of libido. Alcohol is toxic to the testicles, and affects hormones. It could hamper production of sperms, hinder them from developing properly, and s low their movement towards the egg. Alcohol can also limit the liver from metabolizing vitamin A properly. It also depresses the nervous system, and could result in difficulty in getting and keeping erection (Peters, 2008). Many young adults do not realize that alcohol has a fattening effect. Alcohol can reduce the amount of fat that the body burns for energy. The human body makes several attempts to eliminate alcohol very fast as it cannot remain in the body for storage. The process takes priority over nutrient absorption and burning of fat. In the long-term, there could be a serious damage in the appearance. Other effects include loss of hair in the body, breast enlargement, and withering of testicles (Dasgupta, 2011). Alcohol has also been associated with worsening of skin disorders such as rosacae. Rosacae skin disorder is responsible for expansion of blood vessels in the face making it redder. Heavy drinking can cause the appearance of pus spots and red bumps. It has also been linked to inflammation, pain and swelling in the joints. The effect is common among men of between 30 and 60 years old  (Hannigan, Spear, Spear Goodlett, 1999). As mentioned earlier, heavy drinking increases the chances of heart disease, liver damage, bone disease, cancer, anxiety and depression, and type II diabetes. Heavy consumption of alcohol also caused inflammation on the pancreas and irritates stomach. These effects indirectly affect family, community and education (Peters, 2008). Women are not safe from alcohol either. The body of women takes much time to process alcohol compared to men. Women feel more effects of alcohol than men even when they drink the same amount. The fertility of women is at risk with heavy consumption of alcohol. Women are high risk of acquiring breast cancer, and adverse impacts of the menopause. Women are advised in several studies to avoid alcohol when trying to have a baby. Alcohol disrupts menstrual cycle in women, and limits their chances of conceiving. These are bad effects on the body, and not good for family and community in general. Therefore, alcohol should not be legal in the United States (Hannigan, Spear, Spear Goodlett, 1999). While drinking less alcohol may make one look good, heavy consumption causes bad skin, tired eyes, and weight gain for both fe male and male. It also interferes with people’s sleep. Heavy consumers of alcohol often wake up and feel like they have not had enough rest. Alcohol dehydrates the body and skin. It deprives the skin of certain vital nutrients and vitamins. Hence, it is not good for health. Alcohol is also responsible for much divorce among couples due to fights in the family, and lack of finances for family upkeep (Dasgupta, 2011). Alcohol is depressant. It means that alcohol calms people down, and slows down some body organs. With only 0.05% level of blood-alcohol, a person begins getting dulled judgment, and his or her inhibitions get released. They then become clumsy and start having slurred speech with only a 0.10% blood-alcohol level. At 0.30% level of blood-alcohol, one nearly becomes unconscious. Any addition after that becomes extremely dangerous since at 0.45%, one can get into a coma. Brain shuts down from 0.70% and stop controlling the heart, breathing, and one may end up dead. Other short-term effects include blurred vision, blackouts and insomnia. These can lead to injuries, accidents, and even death. Drinking alcohol also causes hangover in the next morning, which is associated with nausea, headaches, heartburn, fatigue, thirst, and dizziness. There are many side effects of alcohol (Peters, 2008).Conclusion In conclusion, consumption of alcohol should be reconsidered in U.S because  of its adverse effects on health, family, community, and education. Alcohol should only be taken when necessary. The side effects are adverse and continue to destroy people across the world. Therefore, alcohol should not be legal in the United States because it is impacts negatively on health, family, community and on a person’s education. References Begleiter, H., Kissin, B. (1996). The pharmacology of alcohol and alcohol dependence. New York: Oxford University Press. Blane, H. T., Leonard, K. E. (1999). Psychological theories of drinking and alcoholism. New York [u.a.: Guilford Press. Brick, J. (2004). Handbook of the medical consequences of alcohol and drug abuse. New York: Haworth Press. Dasgupta, A. (2011). The science of drinking: How alcohol affects your body and mind. Lanham, Md: Rowman Littlefield. Hannigan, J. H., Spear, L. P., Spear, N. E., Goodlett, C. R. (1999). Alcohol and Alcoholism: Effects on Brain and Development. Hoboken: Taylor Francis. Marshall, R. (2000). Alcoholism: Genetic culpability or social irresponsibility: the challenge of innovative methods to determine final outcomes. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Peters, A. R. (2008). Combined effects of alcohol and nicotine on subjective responses and cognitive functioning, Dissertation Abstracts International, 69-4

Reason Of Adopting Interpretivism Approach Psychology Essay

Reason Of Adopting Interpretivism Approach Psychology Essay Cooper and Emory 1995 cited Saunders, 2007 defines research as to provide information systems to solve the problem query. Research methods, will help to achieve research objectives, is also very important to explore the ways of solving the research problem. Saunders, etc., (2007) referred that research method is a process of directing how the theory should be taken. Here, mostly observation and questionnaire survey and interviews, are used in related to the statistical and non statistical analysis. When the definition emphasizes the systems approach of research (Cooper and Emory University, 1995, cited Saunders, etc., 2007) suggested that the research study is based on a rational manner with the overall flow of logic and not just researcher belief. The collected data can help researchers to obtain answers to research questions. Organization of Research Methodology is given below: Research Philosophy Research Approach -Research Method Research strategy Research Sample Research Ethics Figure: Research Process the Onion Metaphor: Saunders et al (2007) p101 In this research study, among three philosophies such as: positivism, interpretivism and realism, the researcher will use the interpretivism philosophy. In this dissertation, there is utilized the inductive approach. In relation to this research study, there will be used the qualitative method of research. Both of primary and secondary data collection method will be used in this research. Here, for conducting this research, the researcher used the questionnaire and sent a set of questionnaire via email to the HR manager of the Radisson hotel. 3.2 Research Philosophy There is needed to contain the clear idea about the philosophy of research study for the purpose of achieving the objectives of this dissertation. Saunders refers that significant assumptions are contained by the philosophy of research which described about the way of viewing the world by the researcher and these assumptions can be used for the purpose of underpinning the strategy of research (Saunders et al., 2009, p. 110). Schutt 2006 cited in Saunders, 2007 mention that if the researcher investigates the social world it is possible that researcher own assumptions also shaped the investigation that how the business world can be the best examine that is the research philosophy. This sometimes refers that the way how researcher views the world. Saunders et al (2007) also argue that before investigating the questions your research raise, it is important to clarify your philosophy you adopt (Schutt 2006 cited in Saunders et al., 2007 ) mention five philosophy of social world positivism, post positivism, inter subjective agreement, Interpretive and constructivism. Although Saunders et al (2007) categorized these into three main philosophies, positivism, Interpretive and realism. By investigating, one can get significant information about customer relationship management (CRM) and its related software, and how it can work in the organization, if one considers the global hotel business, such as Hilton, IBIS, Holiday Inn, Travelodge etc which are the orders of limit their consumer life period . Here the above mentioned research philosophies are discussed in detail below: Positivism: Positivism can be termed as the natural scientists philosophical stance (Saunders et al., 2009, p.113). it is also referred as the methodology which is structured highly due to which it is possible to replicate and there can be created the law like generalizations results. In relation to the law like generalizations, it has been meant by the author that the researcher conducts the research study with same topic where same conclusion can be occurred. Interpretivism: Epistemology is referred by the interpretivism philosophy which indicates that the researcher should know about the differences among human in terms of their roles as the social actors (Saunders et al., 2009, p.116). this philosophy of research has the main conception of interpreting the human social roles by the researcher in relation to the set of meaning of the research study. In addition, two traditions such as: phenomenology and symbolic interactionism is the main source of interpetivism. Phenomenology can be defined as the way of making sense among human throughout the world. symbolic interactionism refers that the human involves the continual process by which social world is interpreted surrounded people where the researcher interpreted other peoples action with whom the researcher interacted and it can be focused towards the adjustment with our own meaning and actions. Moreover, it has been stated by Saunders (2009) that signifcance of interpretivistic philosophy focused towa rds research willingness for adopting the empathetic stance. One challenge is existed that which is entering to the social world in relation to the subject of research and understandng about the research world from the research perspective. At the end, Smith (2002) concludes that the situation of business is not only complex but also appeared as the unique. They contains the function of the specifc set of circumstances and also individuals. In this research study, interpretivism philosophy will be applied by the researcher. Realism: Realism refers to the reality, the meaning of which is indicated towards the sense of showing the truthness of reality: an existence independent of the human mind is having by the objects (Ester-smith, 2004). In addition realism can be divided into two division such as: direct realism and critical realism. Direct realism refers that you get those things what are seen by you, from this perspective the world is portrayed by our experiences achieving through sense. It has been argued by the critical realists that our experience is the sensatios. Reason of Adopting Interpretivism Approach: An interpretivism approach will be followed by this study. For this research study, it is appropriate because a phenomenon such as: specific issue about CRM is explained by the researcher on the basis of the already established research and literature. Moreover, qualitative research is used on this research study which is related with the interpetivism approach. 3.3 Research Approach: In accordance with Saunders (2009), two general ways are there to approach the problem of research for example: deductive and inductive approach. Now, the details of these two approaches are discussed below: Deductive Approach: The deductive approach can be relied towards the thinking by logical way and theory is used there for drawing the conclusion. On the other hand, deductive approach indicates that the main source of conducting research study is using theories which are already establishied and also using model by using which there are develloped the proposition and after that there are tested the proposition by empirical studies. There is used the deductive approach while a theory is developed and also developed hypothesis on the basis of already established facts and theories at the specific field, because of which a research strategy is designed by the researcher and also a theoretical proposition is tested through the researcher. Inductive Approach: In inductive approach, empirical study is the main orgin of conducting research study and existing theories are used for conducting these empirical studies. The main starting point of inductive approach is the data collection and the formulation of theory from the results. Nevertheless, in case quantitative studies, inductive approach can be used. On the other hand, there has the main difference among the deductive and inductive approach which is that deductive approach first use a theory and then practice it and inductive approach first collect the data and then formulate the theory that mean practice to theory. Reasons for Using Inductive Approach: In this dissertation, there is utilized the inductive approach because the inductive approach involves beginning with a set of empirical observations, seeking patterns in those observations, and then theorizing about those patterns and the deductive approach involves beginning with a theory, developing hypotheses from that theory, and then collecting and analyzing data to test those hypotheses. In case of this research study, collected data will be analyzed through empirical observation and applying these observation for establishing theories of CRM. 3.4 Research Method: The method of research can be classified into two types such as: qualitative and quantitative method. Both of these methods are described below: Qualitative research: It is possible to find out the reason or purpose for making research study through the qualitative research where there is not used the method in relation to the unstructured information that can be conducted by the analysis on the time of research course. Various ways are there by which there can be conducted the qualitative research. Such as: feedback norms, videos, emails and the interview transcripts. In the qualitative research, there is included the basic feature of theoretical concept where this type of research study is not related with the statistics and number in terms of the domain of the qualitative research. It can be defined as the enquiry method by which there are dealing the academic things disciplines by explaining the social sciences in the research market field and along with other context (Bryman 2008). The main purpose to conduct the research of qualitative and along with using this research form study through the researcher is getting knowledge on the human beha vior and different issue that can be occurred in terms of the human behavior nature. there can be also investigated the motives and purposes by this research study which can be applied in order to making decision while it cant be connected with the incidental values. In hence, qualitative research has the smaller context but for the purpose of doing this kind of research study, greater focus value should be given by the researcher or larger sampling should be adopted by him or her. There can be produced the information through applying this research method and in order to drawing the general conclusion, hypothesis should be made by the researcher in case of the research study and after that quantitative method is used by the researcher to test the hypothesis validity. Quantitative research: In order to gathering information and data, there can be used the quantitative method of research study. This kind of research method is mainly depended on the numerical data or statistical data and it is possible to measure this form of data easily. In this research method, there are used some research techniques such as: Graphs, tables and statistics by which there can be interpreted the gathered data and information by the researcher in the research study and it is considered as the major difference among the qualitative and quantitative research. In order to making scientific research, both techniques of research for example: qualitative and quantitative or either qualitative or quantitative can be used and biology, physics are the example of scientific research. There are existed the controversies on the using of both of these methods in research study and along with there is also consisted of the ideology in the research techniques forms in case of some certain fields for example: psychology, social anthropology and sociology. Each researcher has the different way of thinking due to which various forms of research methods are used by several researchers. In case of certain matters, there can be produced the information through applying this kind of research study and in order to making the genera l conclusion, hypothesis should be made by the researcher in terms of research study and then quantitative method can be used by the researcher to test the hypothesis validity. Reasons for Using Qualitative Method: In relation to this research study, there will be used the qualitative method of research because of some reasons. This research study is mainly theoretical based where at first theory is formulated and after that the theory is established by analysing collected data. There will not be used any kinds of numerical data or statistics but for interpreting qualitative data, graphs and charts are used by the researcher. 3.5 Research Type: Generally, every one seeks information in different ways. Researchers are also trying to use logical approach to search. Another way, the system can be determined the exact sciences and appropriate topics in any information of search. This is the main point of the survey is to identify, understand the establishment plan, we will try to follow the amount of information owned a large sort of subjects can communicate. In addition, the technology is not a prerequisite to any study; we can use it whenever we need. Survey methodology, we can be divided into different groups: Social Research : Here, the researcher used the social research. For this type of survey research, we follow the theory of scientific information and to disclose more details of the relevant the environment and its past history. In addition, the classification can be divided into academics and non academics, or to maintain the type of application structure or process. The Procedures are as follows: (Ravarini, A., 2002) Types of Research: The purpose of the research process is mainly aimed to create new knowledge .The research in the process have three types. These three types of study are: to explore research and constructive research and empirical studies in the final. Here empirical studies will be conducted by the researcher because numerical terms will be used to interpret and analyze the collected data. 3.6 Data collection Method Primary research: In case of primary research methods, data is not engaged in obtaining from the current literature. It can be gathered by the field research. In particular, the use of primary information is related with the investigating and conducting interview. Main equipments to perform the research are described below: 3.6.1 Face to face interviews: In the face to face interview, interviewer can give answer straightforwardly to the question of the researcher, which usually involves maintaining the sequence of question. There may be short answer questions. In most cases, the answer is incomplete, or the like yes or no. 3.6.2 On-line survey: Online survey is considered as the most commonly used survey which is conducted through the internet. This can be conducted via email by sending questionnaire. 3.6.3 Telephone interview: This is equivalent to other interviews; the questions that asked are almost same for interviewees, and often short. 3.6.4 Questionnaire: Some of the questionnaires are distributed via online such as using: email. Here, for conducting this research, the researcher used the questionnaire and sent a set of questionnaire via email to the HR manager of the Radisson hotel. In this research study, for collecting data face to face interview, online survey and telephone interview will not be used. 3.7 Secondary research : In case of secondary research, information is used for conducting research studies that have been already used, and this information is already available in the literature which can be gathering through other researchers. Secondary research is considered as the data collection methods. This form of study is considered the most significant research because it is used for comparison and analysis. This type of source of research data can be printed resources, examples are: journals, newspapers, Trade magazines, books, electronic, along with the source such as: software package, or on-line service. It is very much needed to take care about that the original source can get credit when secondary sources are used by the researcher (WL Newman (1991). 3.8 Time Horizon: For every research types, the frame of time is considered as the most significant for majority of the researcher. Hence, there is needed for understanding that the research refers to something where time is needed and it will not be the same time period for one research type as comparison other type of research. Two types of studies have been identified by the Saunders (2009) such as: cross sectional studies and longitudinal studies. It has been meant by the cross sectional studies that the study conducted on the certain phenomenon or phenomena in a specific period of time. It is common to use these types of studies in research project where a time constraint is there and there is designed the research with the snapshot forms. In case of longitudinal studies, opportunity is having by the researcher for the purpose of investigating if any changes or developments are there for a specific period of time. In comparison with the cross sectional studies, a phenomenon about various occasions are studied by the longitudinal studies; after that there is designed the research with the form of diary. In this study, there is used the cross sectional approach with the time constraint and the study about the specific phenomenon in a specific period of time. 3.9 Sampling: After conducting the interview through the researcher, there is conducted a survey for the purpose of finding out customer relationship management (CRM) strategy allows the organization for achieving the competitive advantage with the retention of customer by meeting the customers demand. Because of time limitation, 50 peoples are taken by the researcher as a sample size from the perspective of the analysis of data and finding easily. Managers of the hotels are the respondents who participated on the survey. 3.10 Ethics: In order to conducting the research study, there should be maintained some ethical issues by the researcher. Such as: information disclosed and security concern. Not all companies share their private information to other persons due to privacy. Along with this, some respondents dont want to disclose their feedbacks due to security reasons. On that case, the researcher should have to confirm the respondents their opinion will not be provided to any third parties. In addition, the researcher should handle all the respondents without any biasness so that all respondents feel free to give their feedback without any hesitation. 4.00 Design of the Research Questionnaire: Question 1: How CRM can be defined from the perspective of the hotel business? Question 2: How CRM contributes to gain competitive advantage by the hotel business? Question 3: Is your organization considered CRM as a strategy of business? Question 4: What is the relationship between customer and the strategy of CRM? Question 5: How the strategy of CRM of the hotel business can be differed with each other? Question 6: What is the contribution of CRM strategy in the customer retention and satisfaction in the company? Question 7: Through which way customer conflicts can be handled by the company?

Electroconvulsive Therapy Essay -- essays research papers

After researching electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), I have decided that if a close family member or even myself were severely depressed I would not support the use of ECT. Electroconvulsive therapy consists of an electrical shock, which is used to produce a seizure. Many people experience seizures due to some other type of illness or illnesses, and in these cases there is medicine taken in order to prevent these occurrences. In deciding my opinion on the topic of ECT I asked myself would I want to put myself or a loved one through what others are trying to avoid; a seizure. Although ECT has proven to be effective in some cases of depression, it has many risk factors involved and it does not ensure a lifetime with out the reoccurrence of depression.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before ECT is administered the doctor will first do a physical examination on the patient to make sure they are physically able to have the treatment. If the physical examination shows the patient is physically able the next step will be to meet with an anesthesiologist. The purpose of this visit is for the anesthesiologist to examine the heart and lungs to ensure the anesthesia given through an IV will be safe for the patient. Another step taken will be many blood tests and a test showing the rhythm of the patient’s heart. All these procedures must be done before the first treatment of ECT is ever given. These steps are just the beginning of precautions for the treatments no one, not even the doctor...

Meteors Case Study Essay

Meteorites are rocks from space, which land on Earth, attracted by her gravity. The shooting stars that you see at night, are actually burning meteors that fall on Earth from outer space! This is the first of many interesting facts that are going to follow. Why do meteorites fall? For the same reason why anything falls on Earth – ‘Gravity’. Very few can escape it! Meteorites have their origin in outer space. They are relatively small pieces of dust and debris, usually left behind in the wake of a comet. Meteorites, that are huge in size, have their origin in space, as asteroids. They are left over pieces of matter from formation of the solar system, which could not clump together to form a planet like our Earth. There is a dense belt of such asteroids outside the orbit of the planet Mars, called the ‘Asteroid Belt’. Asteroids are huge in size and their lengths can number to kilometers! Once in a while, small pieces of rock or dust, come into range of Earth’s gravitational pull and fall on Earth as shooting stars. An asteroid dislodged from its trajectory and falling on Earth is also called a meteorite. However, an asteroid being huge in size, causes a cataclysmic explosion on Earth on impact. Origin ‘Meteor’ and ‘Meteorite’ facts are interchangeable terms and we shall see why they are so. When these rocks and pieces of dust are floating in space, they are called ‘Meteoroids’. When they make a blazing entry into Earth’s atmosphere, they are called ‘Meteors’. Finally, if they survive the burning entry into Earth’s atmosphere and fall on Earth, they are called ‘Meteorites’. So a meteorite could originate from comet debris called meteoroids or larger objects called asteroids! Here are some basic facts about meteorites, meteors and meteoroids. Comets leave tons of dust and debris in their trail as they travel along long orbits round the Sun. When Earth, while revolving around the Sun, passes through some patches of this comet debris, it enters the Earth’s atmosphere causing meteor showers. Meteor showers are periodic events. One can see thousands of meteors or shooting stars, as they are called, dur ing such a shower. The most popular meteor showers are ‘Perseids’ (which peak around August 12) and Leonids (which peak around 17 November). During these showers, you can observe a shooting star at the rate of 1 meteor per minute on an average. A falling meteor can travel at speed of as much as 44 miles per second ! One of the facts is that they have some of the oldest rocks in the solar system among them. They could be older than the Earth and date from the period when Sun was forming! Every day, about 4 billion meteoroids fall on Earth! Majority of them are very tiny and therefore do not cause much harm. If a meteorite is observed while falling and recovered from the place of fall, it’s called a ‘fall’ meteorite. If a meteorite is not observed while falling, but found from any location, it’s called a ‘find.’ Till 2006, there have been roughly 1,050 witnessed falls while there are about 30,000 documented ‘Finds’. Falling meteors which are large in size, can create an intense electromagnetic pulse, which temporarily disrupt radio communication in the region of fall! With a properly designed radio antenna, you can actually ‘hear’ meteorites falling as radio noise. Types and Composition Here are some facts about their types and composition, that you should know about. Recovered meteorites are classified into three main categories which are ‘Chondrites’ (Make about 86% of all recovered meteorites), ‘Achondrites’ (8%) and ‘Iron’ meteorites (6 %). The name ‘Chondrites’ comes from features called ‘Chrondules’, which are melted silicate materials from their past. Chondrites are about 4.55 billion years old and are the types of rocks from which our own planet formed! Certain chondrite meteorites fallen from outer space contain traces of amino acids and organic matter, bolstering the theory that life may have been planted on Earth! This is one of the most astounding facts. Achronidtes are relatively younger meteorites of the igneous rock type and are pieces of asteroids, the Moon and Mars! Iron meteorites are composed of iron-nickel alloys and silicate materials. They are also thought to be pieces of asteroid s! Every one of these meteor facts are intriguing. Earth has been pounded by the impact of many meteorites, ranging from the very tiny to gigantic meteorites. The meteorites impact craters that are found on earth are testimony to this. It is time for the last of our facts. One gigantic meteorite impact occurred millions of years ago on Earth which brought on the extinction of dinosaurs! One question that may come to your mind is, ‘Where do meteorites fall?’. They could fall anywhere on Earth. Meteors have been found all over the world. The recent findings have been mostly in Africa and accessible parts of Antarctica. If you could find one, you are bound to be rich as private collectors and museums pay millions of dollars for them! The reason is that they are very rare and are made up of minerals, which are never found on Earth! So keep looking! You may never know, when one might pop out of the sky, making you rich. So it’s actually profitable to know some meteor facts. Originating in the outer space, an object reaches Earth and gets a place in the list of meteorites. There have been many instances of extraterrestrial bo dies impacting the Earth’s surface while some have only passed through the Earth’s atmosphere before they were destroyed. Meteorites have been arousing interest of the masses as there is an element of mystery that surrounds them. Where do they originate? What makes some of them enter the Earth’s atmosphere? How dangerous can they get? Space research and astronomy have revealed some interesting information about some of these questions and researched thoroughly on the different types of meteorites. Most of the meteorites disintegrate before reaching Earth while some reach the planet’s surface. Huge meteorites form craters on Earth while the smaller ones involve less danger. Meteorites containing small round particles are known as chondrites and form about 86% of those falling on Earth. Those similar in appearance to small igneous rocks are called achondrites and believed as being the crustal material of asteroids. Meteorites originating from the core of asteroids are known as iron meteorites and form about 5% of the meteorites, which fall. History has recorded a number of instances of meteorites impacting the Earth. ALH 84001: It was found in the Allan Hills, Antarctica in December 1984. Meteorite hunters of the United States working on ASMNET project discovered this meteorite. When discovered, its mass was 1.93 kilograms and its rock was reportedly one of the oldest forms. This meteorite was supposed to have come from Mars. Later it was believed to consist of some traces of the life on Mars and this made ALH 84001 more famous than ever. Hoba: This meteorite lies on the farm Hoba West in Namibia and has never been moved elsewhere because of its exceptionally greater mass. With a mass of about 60 tons, it is the largest meteorite known to mankind. It is tabloid in shape and composed of metal. It is believed to have landed on Earth about 80,000 years ago. In 1955, it was declared as a national monument and has since then been attracting visitors from different parts of the world. Tunguska Event: The Tunguska explosion took place in June 1908 near Tunguska River, now a part of Russia. Most probably, the air burst of a large meteorite caused this explosion. The energy emitted from this explosion was about 1000 times greater than that of the bomb blast of Hiroshima. According to the eyewitnesses of this explosion, the event started with a flash of bright blue light and a sound originating from east and moving northward. Later the sound was accompanied by shock waves that broke windows miles away. This was one of the famous disintegrating meteorites that remain in the list of world’s most famous meteorites. Willamette Meteorite: This is an iron-nickel meteorite that was discovered in the United States near Oregon. It is the largest of the meteorites found in the United Sates as also the sixth largest in the world. Probably the meteorite had landed in the region, which is now known as Canada. This meteorite weighing about 15.5 tons is one of the very large meteorites of the world. Orgueil: This meteorite fell in France in 1864 and is a relatively older meteorite. The fall of this meteorite consisted of small stones that covered a massive area. This is one of those eight meteorites that belong to the CL chondrite group. A striking feature of this type of meteorite it that its composition is similar to that of the Sun. This meteorite is one of the most researched ones. For purposes of deeper study of the composition of this meteorite, it was split into pieces. Currently, it exists in the form of pieces kept in different museums in Europe and the United States. These were some of the famous meteorites of the world. They have always been a subject of interest for researchers around the world. Meteor showers A meteor shower is a celestial event wherein it is observed that a group of meteors radiate from anyone point in the sky. This phenomenon is also known as ‘Meteor Storm’ or ‘Meteor Outburst’. The meteors that are present in the showers are actually cosmic debris that enter the Earth atmosphere at very high speed and vaporize very quickly due to friction leaving behind a streak of light which is known as the meteor shower. An identified meteor shower is usually an annual affair as the Earth will encounter the same meteors at approximately the same time and same speed every year. Causes Meteor showers are a result of interaction that takes place between the planet Earth and a comet. Comets consist of ice and rocks (often termed dirty ice balls) that orbit around the sun like planets. Every time the comet gets close to the sun, some of the ice present in the comet melts which produces a large amount of debris. This debris moves away from the comet and becomes a part of its tail which is visible part of the comet. The solid parts of the tail are the meteoroids and they spread along the entire orbit of the comet which is termed as a meteoroid stream. As the Earth orbits around the sun, its path may cross the meteoroid stream and a meteor shower follows. When the meteoroid stream is particularly dense, then we get to witness the meteor storm and having witnessed one myself, I can guarantee that the sight is truly spectacular. People Behind the Concept It is believed that Irish astronomer George Johnstone Clooney collaborating with the British astronomer Arthur Matthew Weld Downing and Adolf Berberich belonging to the Royal Astronomical Computation Institute in Berlin, Germany offered the very first idea of the meteoroid stream in the 1890. They were able to calculate as to how the meteoroids once freed from the comet would travel at low speeds when compared to the comet itself would start drifting after completing one orbit. This effect was attributed to simple orbital wherein the materials drift laterally away from the comet as some particles make a wider orbit when compared to other particles. The gravitational pull of the Earth’s atmosphere would decide where the dust trails would pass the Earth’s atmosphere. It is a fair possibility that some years, the dust particles can completely miss the Earth’s orbit. Major Meteor Showers If you want to watch meteor showers then the best time of the year is the night of January 3. The shower has been named Quadrantids and this particular shower can produce over a close to 140 meteors per hour. The source of this shower is not a comet but a minor planet, 2003 EH1 which suffered a catastrophic breakup in 1490. However, the showers are very faint and the peak hours last only for a few hours. Hence, you will have to be in a good spot and at an ideal point to watch the shower in all its glory and the best place to watch this particular shower is from the Northern Hemisphere. But people in Southern Hemisphere need not be disappointed. As a matter of fact, they get to witness a meteor shower termed Eta Aquarids which consists of debris from the famous Halley’s Comet. This shower peaks on the night of May 5 and the rate of meteors is about 30 per hour. The meteor shower ‘Geminids’ is considered to be the best annual shower. It peaks around the night of December 13 and the rate of meteor is around 70 per hour. The source of this shower is also a minor planet, 3200 Phaethon. It is best visible from the Northern Hemisphere and it is believed that due to the extreme cold conditions, the air tends to be more transparent and this is the reason as to why this particular shower is spectacular. Sporadic Meteor Showers When the meteoroids collide with each other and can become a part of the sporadic meteors background. They form isolated meteors and are not a part of any shower. Asteroids Asteroids are considered to be remnants of an early broken planet of the solar system. Asteroids have no fixed shape and are too small to be spherical in shape. They are ellipsoids (two dimensional figure), dumbbell or irregularly shaped. As they have different shapes, they also vary in their size. The first asteroid Ceres, discovered in January 1801 by Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi, is the largest known asteroid and is 940 km in diameter. Some of the smallest asteroids are just 6 meters in diameter. The mass of all the asteroids added together, is believed to lesser than the mass of the Moon. Only 200,000 asteroids have been discovered so far, but billion more undiscovered asteroids still exit in our solar system. Asteroid Belt Most asteroids lie in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, however there are more belts in the solar system, namely the ones beyond Neptune’s orbit. The belt itself has interesting origination theories. Most astronomers believe that the belt is a broken planet, while some say that the belt is primordial material that never coalesced into a planet because of Jupiter’s gravitational pull. The asteroid belt lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and contains more than 200 asteroids larger than 100 km in diameter, and more than 750,000 asteroids with diameters larger than 1 km. Most asteroids are found in this belt because of the gravitational interaction between the solar system and the celestial bodies in it. As opposed to the fiction made popular by various depictions of the asteroid belt, it is not at all dense. The region is so vast that asteroids are hundreds of thousands of kilometers away from their closest neighbor. The asteroids are so small and far away from each other that they appear as faint stars, and except for Ceres, are not bright enough to be seen without some telescopic aid. Only the asteroid Vesta, on rare occasions of an extremely clear dark sky can become visible to the naked eye. What are Asteroids Composed Of? Asteroids are made of different minerals and substances. This depends on the planet they broke away from in a collision, as well as the chemical reactions they might have experienced while orbiting in the solar system. The asteroids closest to the Sun are mostly carbonaceous and the ones further away are composed of silicate rock. The metallic asteroids are made of 70-80% iron and the remaining is nickel with many other metals such as iridium mixed in. Some are also made of half silicate and half metallic. The asteroid Ceres is composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, whereas Vesta has a nickel-iron core, basaltic crust and a covering of magnesium iron silicate (olivine mantle). Asteroids composition has been classified as the following: C class asteroids: They are found in the Earth’s outer belt and are darker and more carbonaceous than the ones found in the S class. D class asteroids: They are also known as Trojan asteroids of Jupiter and are dark and carbonaceous in composition. S class asteroids: They are found in the Earth’s inner belt, closer to Mars and are composed of mostly stone and iron. V class asteroids: They are a far-out group of asteroids that follow a path between the orbits of Jupiter and Uranus, and are made of igneous, eruptive materials. A near-Earth asteroid collided with the Earth about 65 million years ago, which triggered environmental changes, leading to the extinction of the dinosaurs. This asteroid created a huge circular depression called the Chicxulub Basin and is centered in Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, a major tourist attraction. Though the chances of asteroid collision with the Earth is very rare, they do come very close to our planet due to collisions and gravitational tugs on the highly elliptical Sun’s orbit. Most asteroids burn up in the atmosphere and never reach the Earth. NASA projects, such as the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) and the Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) main objectives are to detect and intercept asteroids or other celestial bodies coming close to the Earth before they cause untold damage to our planet. Asteroids are small celestial bodies composed of rock and metal, that revolve around the Sun. Their size can vary: some asteroids are large and roughly spherical in shape, due to which they appear like miniature planets; while the others are small and irregularly shaped. The matter of these celestial bodies also differs. The asteroid ‘Vesta’, is believed to have a nickel-iron core, olivine mantle and basaltic crust, while the asteroid ’10 Hygiea’ is composed of carbonaceous chondrite. Most of the small asteroids are piles of rubble held together by gravity. Some asteroids supposedly have traces of amino-acids and other organic compounds, and it is assumed that the impact of asteroids on the Earth could have initiated life on the planet by seeding it with the necessary chemical substances. Although, it is believed that the asteroids may have planted life on the Earth, they are capable of having catastrophic effect on the planet as well. Asteroids with a diameter of 5 to 10 meters, and energy equal to 15 kilotons of TNT, enter into the Earth’s atmosphere approximately once every year; while, those with a diameter of over 50 meters enter the Earth’s atmosphere approximately once in a thousand years. Their impact can be devastating if they hit the Earth, but they disintegrate in the upper atmosphere and most of the particles are vaporized, thus rendering them harmless. In the distant past, our planet has experienced a massive climate change and large-scale extinction of animal and plant species, ascribed to the impact of some large asteroids on the planet. The exogenesis theory suggests that origin of life on the Earth must have been triggered by the impact of some asteroid, carrying organic chemicals needed to initiate life form. The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, which led to the end of dinosaurs and the Permian-Triassic extinction event that led to the end of the Permian period finishing off 90% of the species on the planet, are believed to be the result of an asteroid impact on the Earth. The craters on the solid bodies in the solar system, which were attributed to volcanic activities till 1960s, were actually formed due to the impact of celestial bodies. Researchers have determined that in the last 600 million years, 60 objects with a diameter of five km or more, have struck the Earth. Even the smallest of these object possessed energy of ten million megatons of TNT, and would have formed a crater, approximately 95 km in diameter, on the surface of our planet. The Rio Cuarto craters in Argentina are believed to have formed due to the impact of asteroids that struck this area around 10,000 years ago. In 1490, ten thousand people reportedly lost their lives due to a hail of stones from the sky. This hail of stones is assumed to be result of the disintegration of a large asteroid, after it entered the Earth’s atmosphere. In 1908, a mid-air explosion of an asteroid destroyed 80 million trees, within an area of 830 miles, near the Podkamennaya Tunguska River, in Si beria. In many cases, the sighting of a foreign body, such as an asteroid or a meteoroids is reported as a fireball in the sky. Millions of asteroids will pass by the Earth in the years to come. Though, they are unknown now, they are detectable as they come closer to the planet. The Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) and the Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) are projects initiated by NASA to detect asteroids or other such foreign bodies coming close to the Earth. The need of the hour is to develop an intercept system in space, to destroy or deflect foreign objects heading towards our planet, before they prove catastrophic. Asteroids are celestial bodies consisting of rocks and metals. They are mainly concentrated in the region known as the asteroid belt which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids can be as big as Ceres, which is close to 1000 kilometers in diameter, or can be just a few feet in diameter. Whatever the size, asteroids are neither big enough to be called planets nor are they as small as comets. They are classified as minor planets that include the Kuiper Belt Objects. Discovery On January 1, 1801, Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the first asteroid which he initially thought to be a comet. He named this asteroid Ceres, after the Sicilian Goddess of grain. Ceres is also the largest asteroid to have been discovered so far. Soon, other large asteroids like Pallas, Juno and Vista were discovered. By the end of the 19th century, several hundred asteroids were discovered. Formation of Asteroids It was once believed that asteroids were formed by the explosion of a planet orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. However, according to present day astronomers, asteroids are debris left behind by the Big Bang that could not come together to form a tenth planet because of the effect of Jupiter’s gravitational pull. Asteroid Hits Asteroids have been hitting the Earth since millions of years. However, due to the friction with Earth’s atmosphere most of the asteroids get burnt. The asteroids that enter the Earth’ s atmosphere are called meteors while the ones that get burnt and appear as shooting stars are called meteorites. According to the Giant Impact Theory, the Moon was created when Theia, an asteroid of the size of Mars, collided with the Earth in the early days of the solar system. However, some consider Theia to be more of a planetoid than an asteroid. The largest crater caused by an asteroid hit is the Chicxulub Crater in Mexico that is 180 km in diameter. The asteroid that formed the crater had a diameter of 10 km. This collision is supposed to be responsible for the extinction of a large number of flora and fauna including the dinosaur. However, the evidence of the largest asteroid hit is in the Vredefort crater in South Africa that is 300 km in diameter. Impacts of Asteroid Hits The damage that an asteroid’s impact can cause depends mainly upon its mass and velocity, as these are the two factors that determine the energy that is released when an asteroid hits the Earth. While some asteroids are capable of sending thermal waves that can incinerate most flora and fauna within a few hundred kilometers, some larger asteroids can create huge impacts causing magma to cover areas as big as continents. The worst effect of an asteroid hit is the blocking out of sunlight for months together due to formation of dust clouds and soot in the upper atmosphere. This would hamper the green plants’ ability to prepare food through the process of photosynthesis and the food chain would be disrupted. Near-Earth Asteroids Near-Earth asteroids are those that have moved closer to the Earth’s orbit as they have been knocked out of the asteroid belt due to collision with other asteroids or comets, or due to the gravitational forces of Jupiter. They are classified into the following three groups: The Amors: These are near-Earth asteroids that cross the orbit of Mars but do not go out of the Earth’s orbit. The Apollos: The orbits of these near-Earth asteroids cross the Earth’s orbit but have an orbital period of greater than one year. The Atens: These near-Earth asteroids have orbits that cross the Earth’s orbit but have an orbital period of less than one year. Asteroids are currently being monitored for their probability of colliding with the Earth. Such studies have predicted that asteroids may hit the Earth on February 1, 2019 and March 16, 2880. The probability of the 2880 collision is as high as 1 in 300. A number of projects in the field of astronomy, like Spacewatch, Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking and Catalina Sky Survey are being carried out to detect any threat of such catastrophes. Comets A comet is a small body in space. It was matter of great interest to astronomers like Sir Edmond Halley. Many decades later, comets still remain a challenging mystery for the field of astronomy. Space research institutes around the world have reported the existence of 3628 comets that are known and studied. Annually, an average of one comet is sighted by the naked eye from the surface of the Earth. According to the definitions given by the various space research organizations, a comet can be defined as a space body that travels in an elliptical orbit around the sun. Most of the comets travel in elliptical orbits. When the comet comes in the vicinity of the star it is orbiting around, its comma-like tail gets illuminated. A majority of comets are visible only through telescopes and other aids. There are however, some comets which are also visible to the naked eye. What is a Comet Made Up of? A comet is principally made up of ice, dust and different forms of gases. The nature of the components differs from comet to comet. The central part of a comet that looks like a ball is termed as the nucleus. The nucleus is principally made up of ice and frozen gases. The frozen components also include many other compounds like ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide. Rocks are another component of the nucleus. Due to such composition, the nucleus of the comet often resembles a huge ball of dirt and snow. It is also believed by some astronomers, that the nucleus of a comet is rather fragile because several comets have split into parts without any explainable reason except immense velocity. The huge elliptical orbit takes the comet in the range of heat of the star around which it is orbiting. When the comet enters the inner parts of the solar system, the frozen content of the nucleus starts melting. The gases and water within the nucleus vaporize as a result of radiation from the star and the solar wind. The immense velocity of the comet and the solar wind, push the vaporized matter away from the nucleus. This gives the comet it’s distinct tail and the comma-like appearance. The high amount of heat and the ions (charged particles that are formed due to the heat of the sun) cause the tail of the comet to glow. How are Comets Formed? According to their formation or birth, the comets can be classified into two types. The first type is short-term comets which originate in the Kuiper belt as space bodies beyond the orbit of Pluto. The gravitational pull of the planets in the solar system, causes the origin of short term comets. These comets enter the solar system and take the form of active and glowing comets. Long term comets originate as traveling bodies in the Oort cloud (located around 50,000 light years away from the sun). The gravitational attraction of the planets in the solar system and other gravitational forces cause these comets to form elliptical orbits. Death of a Comet The study of comets has revealed that they have a fragile structure. Sometimes, comets split into parts due to sheer velocity. The entry and exit of comets in the solar system in course of its orbit, reduces the amount of matter (ice and frozen gases) in it. Due to this reduction in matter, the comets break-up and disperse into clouds. A dead comet is nothing but an asteroid or a similar form of a space body. Sometimes the comets also crash in other planets when their orbits cross each other. The most famous example of such a comet is the Shoemaker Levy 9, that crashed into Jupiter. For astronomers who have spent their lives studying comets, it a very heart-breaking moment to gaze at a dying comet. The Halley’s Comet is said to be one of the most beautiful comets. Another very beautiful comet is the Hale-Bopp, that was discovered in the year 1995, on 23rd July. It was predicted by astronomers that the Halley’s Comet would be sighted in the November of 1835. Mark Twain, the famous writer, was born just two weeks after the sighting. He developed a very special liking towards the Halley’s Comet. In his biography he comments,†I came in with the Halley’s Comet, and expect to go with it. The Almighty has said no doubt, Now here are two unaccountable freaks; they came in together; they must go out together.† Halley’s Comet was next sighted on 20th April, 1910. Twain ended the journey of his life the very next day. The journey of any comet is indeed like that of Mark Twain. It is remarkably long, fast, adventurous as it streaks across the dark sky. Haley’s comet Historical Spottings British scientist, Edmond Halley who observed the comet in 1682, was the first person to establish its periodic reappearance after every 75-76 years. He studied the comet and quite accurately predicted that it had earlier appeared in 1531 and in 1607. It was named ‘Halley’ in his honor and was observed again in 1758 as stated by him. It was last seen in February 1986. However, this was not the first time the comet was in focus. The first sighting recorded, was way back in 240 BC, by the Chinese and was mentioned in a chronicle, ‘Records of the Great Historian’. The comet also finds a mention in a Babylonian clay inscription of 164 BC. It has always been a subject of great interest, since it was believed to have an influence on the contemporary events. Armenian king Tigranes II, had its image printed on the coins issued in his regime after it was sighted in 87 BC. Therefore, even though the recurrence of the comet was an unknown fact, people were fascinated b y its appearance. The bright star that appeared in the night sky in 12 BC, coinciding with the birth of Jesus, is widely believed to be the Halley’s comet. Giotto Di Bondone, the famous Italian painter, who lived before the renaissance era, painted it in his work ‘The Star of Bethlehem’ in the Nativity, in 1305. He had seen the comet appear in 1301 and was impressed by the spectacle. In the middle ages, the appearance of a comet was considered to be a warning sign of a forthcoming danger. The most famous incident of spotting a comet during this period, was in 1066, before the Battle of Hastings. King Harold who had lost the battle, was believed to have seen the comet due to which he was cursed. In fact, the Bayeux Tapestry in Normandy, France, signifies the Norman victory in this battle with an image of King Harold looking at the comet in the sky. In 1456, Pope Calixtus III had condemned its appearance considering it to be an evil omen. Three years prior to this, Europe was defeated by the Ottoman Empire. Human beings have always blamed celestial phenomena, whenever they have not been able to explain the causes of certain unfavorable events. Historically, the presence of a comet in the night sky was commonly cited as the reason behind difficult situations that were beyond the reasoning of common man. A French physician, Ambroise, had described the pitiful conditions of middle ages, when a comet was seen just before the spread of a big epidemic. According to him, some people were scared to death while others fell sick on seeing the comet. It was believed to be some ‘evil form’ leaving behind a trail of blood, believed to be a sign of misery. Recent Spottings In the 16th and the 17th century, scientists learned to calculate the speed and distance at which comets travel around the Sun. Once, Edmond Halley had established the year of its reappearance, Halley’s comet became a matter of great interest. Although, he didn’t live to see his prediction coming true, his observation had a significant impact on the way society perceived comets. The sighting of a comet, especially Halley’s comet became less of a concern and more of a curiosity among people. Once people realized that comets are orbiting bodies just like planets, they became less apprehensive on the arrival of a comet in the Earth’s visibility zone. The change in the attitude of the people was seen in the depiction of the comet in the contemporary pictures. Halley’s comet was a subject of scientific study and was depicted as a beautiful heavenly body in the sky. Famous American writer Mark Twain was born in 1835, the year when Halley’s comet ha d appeared. He predicted in 1909 that since he had ‘come’ with the comet he will ‘go out’ with it. Sure enough, he passed away a year after the comet reappeared in 1910. In the 1900s, it had appeared twice; once in 1910 and then in 1986. Further studies gave us a deep insight into the structure, composition and orbital journey of many different comets. Halley’s comet has one of the shortest orbital paths. It is classified as a short period comet, i.e. comets having an orbit period of 200 years or less. Once upon a time, it belonged to the long period class, but due to the gravitational force of planets, its orbit shortened over a period of time. Today, it is known that comets like ‘Hale Bopp’ which appeared in 1997, will reappear after 4200 years! Thus, Halley’s comet is the most frequently spotted one. Recently, it was seen in February 1986. During this visit, it was subjected to its biggest scrutiny ever. Five spacecrafts from The European Space Agency, Japan and the USSR were launched to study its surface. Structure and Composition of Halley’s Comet Halley’s comet is a big mass of ice and dust, having an elliptical orbit and shaped like a peanut. It has a highly elongated orbit, taking it very close to the Sun. It flings off far in the outer solar system, similar to a slingshot motion. The composition is mainly of water, sodium monoxide, methane, ammonia, hydrocarbons, iron and sodium. Its closest distance from the Sun was found to be just 0.6 AU (astronomical unit) and the farthest distance was calculated to be 35 AU, roughly the same distance as that of Pluto. It orbits the Sun in a retrograde or in the direction opposite to that of the planets’ revolution. The speed with respect to the Earth is quite high, since it is highly eccentric and inclined. The day time is relatively more on its surface and its maximum temperature rises up to 77 degrees celsius. Due to its large size and a well-defined and regular orbit, it was easy for the probe missions photograph it closely and study its surface. The mass of the comet is 1.7Ãâ€"1015 kilograms and the size of the nucleus has been estimated to be 15 km Ãâ€" 7 km Ãâ€" 7 km. Winds blowing near its surface are so strong that 1 gram particle of dust which hit the Giotto space probe, briefly destabilized it. Halley’s comet will next appear in 2062. Comets have always been a fascination for human beings and will continue to mesmerize generations to come, as we discover more interesting facts about these spectacular fireballs, the comets. Comet lullin Comet Lulin was discovered on July 11, 2007, by the duo of Ye Quanzhi and Lin Chi-Sheng. A non-periodic comet, Lulin appears to be greenish in color. This green color is attributed to the presence of gases such as cyanogen and diatomic carbon, which produce a green glow when illuminated by sunlight in the vacuum of the space. Officially designated as C/2007 N3 (Lulin), it is also known as the ‘Comet of Cooperation’ in China and Taiwan, as the two individuals involved in its discovery, were from these two countries. This comet was first photographed by Taiwanese astronomer Lin Chi-Sheng on July 11, 2007, while he was working on the Lulin Sky Survey Project (LUSS) at the Lulin observatory in Nantou, Taiwan. The Lulin Sky Survey Project aims to identify the numerous small objects in the solar system, particularly those that pose possible hazards to our planet. Lin used a 16-inch telescope to photograph this comet, which was initially assumed to be an asteroid. A few days later, Ye Quanzhi, a 19-year old student of meteorology from Sun Yat-Sen University, China, recognized this comet while going through Lin’s photographs. Its status of being a comet was confirmed after the presence of coma, the nebulous envelope around the nucleus of the comet, was noticed. Both, Lin and Quanzhi were accredited with the discovery of this new comet. As it was first noticed from the Lulin Observatory, it was named as Comet Lulin. Comet Lulin was seen in the Libra constellation from January to March 2009. In January, it was getting brighter and could be seen just before dawn; while in February, the brightness reached its peak. Eventually, in March, it started to fade as it went farther away from the Earth. While it was approaching the Earth, it had a typical tail pointing away from the Sun, as well as an ‘anti-tail’ which was directly pointing towards the sun. Although, it was assumed that this anti-tail was observed only in photographs, so me observers reported that it was visible even from a telescope in February 2009. According to Brian Marsden, an astronomer at Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Massachusetts, this comet’s closest approach to the sun was on January 10, 2009 when it reached a distance of 113 million miles from the sun. He noticed that the comet was moving in a retrograde orbit that is near-parabolic. On February 24, Comet Lulin came the closest to the Earth, at a distance of 0.41 AU or 38 million miles to be precise. On February 4, 2009, a team of Italian astronomers, under the leadership of Ernesto Guido, witnessed a strange phenomenon taking place in comet Lulin. While photographing the comet with a remotely controlled telescope in New Mexico, they saw that its tail suddenly disconnected. Ernesto attributed this odd phenomenon to magnetic disturbance of the solar wind hitting the comet. Earlier, this had been observed with Comet Encke too, when coronal mass ejection occurred, due to such magnetic storms. Photographs taken by NASA’s Swift Gamma-ray Explorer satellite in ultra-violet and X-rays show that Lulin is shedding 800 gallons of water every second. Observations by NASA also revealed that the surface material of the comet was burning away due to sun’s heat. This sighting of Comet Lulin was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for the whole world, as there is no possibility of this comet returning to the inner solar system, at least not for the next thousand years. Human kind has always looked to the heavens in awe and wonder, and sometimes in fear. Perhaps no other astronomical phenomenon except a total solar eclipse has historically evoked as much fear as comets. When the specter of fear is removed, however, they emerge as strikingly beautiful objects in the sky. It was once believed that if earth passed through a tail of a comet, its inhabitants would die; this theory has been discredited. Comets are messengers from a time long past. Most are chunks of dirty ice, locked away in the Oort cloud for billions of years. (Oort cloud: – It is the source for long period comets, with orbital periods of greater than two hundred years.) Comets are familiar to nearly everyone as striking star like objects with long tails stretching across a wide band of the sky. The most famous comet, Halley’s comet makes its return to the skies every seventy-five years. The word â€Å"comet† is derived from a Greek word meaning â€Å"long haired† Comets were greatly feared before the twentieth century as bad omens. Since then, they have been identified and cataloged as objects that come from deep space. Most of them occupy orbits that carry them far outside the solar system. Many of them make only a single approach to the sun and never return again, while others exist in stable, but highly elliptical orbits that allow them to return after an extended period of time, su ch as the Halley’s comet. In 1986, the European space probe Giotto passed about 600 kilometers from the Comet Halley as it made its close approach to the sun. The probe verified existing theories that comets are made up of ices covered by black dust or soil. The spacecraft confirmed a theory that had been advanced prior to the reconnaissance that described comets as â€Å"dirty snowballs.† Using data taken by the spacecraft, scientists determined that the dust is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Other metals have also been discovered in comets, such as iron, calcium, nickel, potassium, copper and silicon. Halley’s comet was one of the darkest objects ever seen in the solar system; it was basically flat black. Comets are composed of a mixture of ices and dust. As a comet approaches the sun, it absorbs the suns energy and warms up. The main body of the comet is called the nucleus. As the nucleus warms, the ice beneath the comets soil evaporates. Because the comet has no atmosphere, the evaporated substance (also called a volatile) escapes into the vacuum of space as a gaseous envelope that surrounds the comet called â€Å"coma.† As the coma grows, it forms a plume of vapor that carries away some of the comets surface as well. This mixture of evaporated volatile particles and dust is carried away from the comet by solar wind, is ionized by high-energy particles, and creates the spectacular tail of the comet. The comet’s tail, glowing in the solar wind, can stream behind the comet for millions of kilometers. The nucleus of the comet consists of mostly volatile ices and dust. The ice is nearly all water ice, but there is also evidence of ices composed of carbon dioxide and methane. More elementary compounds of nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon monoxide may exist as volatile ices. Comets are typically small bodies (comparatively!!). Halley’s comet is a potato shaped object, 14 by 17 kilometers. The largest known comet is Chiron, which is estimated to be approximately 200 kilometers in diameter. Comets are thought to have formed as the solar system evolved. The material of which comets are composed was constructed by accretion at the outer edge of the disk of material that ultimately became the sun and planets. Because the comet material was fashioned at the outer edge of the solar system, the sun did not evaporate the volatiles in the cometary material. At the same time, the giant planets of the solar system formed at what would become the outer orbits of the solar system. These massive planets encountered the newly formed comets, and the ones that were not engulfed by the giant planets were, over the first billion years, catapulted into interstellar space by the planets massive gravitational fields. Not all comets met that fate, however. Some were gently nudged into stable orbits closer to the sun. Others were flung into the inner solar system and impacted the inner planets. Relevance: – The study of comets involves detailed knowledge of its composition of the outer regions of the solar system and the space between the last planet and 100,000 astronomical units onwards. Cometary study also seeks to understand complex gravitational interactions between bodies separated by wide distances and even gravitational interactions between tiny comets, their behavior when approaching the sun, and something of the makeup and evolution of the early solar system. New comets approaching the sun for the first time have been held in deep freeze in the Oort cloud and are thought to be composed of primordial material of the newly forming solar system. They have been tied up in the Oort cloud for billions of years at temperatures slightly above absolute zero. As they approach the sun, their internal gases begin to steam away. A detailed study of an approaching comet may tell cosmologists about the composition of the early solar systems. Comets and their approach have also hinted at the existence of the elusive brown dwarf, thought to be one of the most common bodies of interstellar space. Because they are so dim, they are all but invisible from Earth. On the other hand, because brown dwarfs are thought to be so plentiful, the study of comets and their orbits may give the first real clues to the former’s reality and abundance. In the early 1980s the existence of the galactic tidal action was merely speculation. Since then, careful study of cometary orbits and approaches has favorable supported the theory of galactic tides. In the close approach of Halley’s comet by an unmanned spacecraft in 1986, a wealth of information was recovered on the shape, behavior, and composition of comets. The existence of the Oort cloud and the concept gravitational interactions by passing objects in space have led to the theory of periodic comet showers. Such comet showers, separated by periods of tens of millions of years, may be responsible for the mass extinction on Earth. There is a wide speculation that Earth was struck by one or more comets 70 million years ago, which wiped out the dinosaurs. Some scientists have speculated that this extinction was the result of a shower of comets from the Oort cloud, sent on their close approach to the sun by a passing star or brown dwarf through the Oort cloud. Comets have been used to judge vast distances, evaluate the composition of the solar system as it was being born, and even test the idea that the gravity of the entire galaxy can make a difference to the smallest objects in space. Comets have been used as yardsticks to evaluate what may be the most type of star in the galaxy-the brown dwarf-which ironically is one that may never be seen. They have also been called dirty snowballs. Halley’s comet was so black that it was the darkest object ever seen in space. Yet, from these dirty specks of ice, cosmologists have witnessed some of the most spectacular light shows. Ultimately comets may also generate clues to some of the most fundamental secrets about the solar system and planets. From these tiny messengers, cosmologists may unlock and examine pristine elements from creation itself.

How Films Change Perception Essay

There are many ways in which movies or films may become art. Art can be expressed through color, angles, character development, plot, even scenery; or all of these combined. In the movie Il Postino there is a certain art of the film which allows the viewer to become part of the story, to fall in love as the characters fall in love, through the expression of words and moments. This paper will focus on how movies or films help in changing a person’s perspective through the use of characters, plot, scenery, camera angles, filter use, and the overall ambience of a film, mainly focusing on Il Postino. A film is a gateway by which the viewing audience is immersed in another person’s life which includes their family, their culture, and their environment. Due to the relationship which the camera has with the character, the audience feels as though they too have a bond with the protagonists of the film. By extension then, the characters’ life becomes the audience’s reality. The brilliance of movies is that there are so many ways in which to depict varied cultures and for each film there is a chance for the audience member to exchange, expound, and change their own perspective in light of the information they are given from the characters’ lives. It is through this part of the film, the expression of love in its diverse and dynamic multidimensional forms that the viewer is allowed to partake in the film, be hypnotized with the characters and it is this that makes Il Postino an art film, and how it can change an audience members own perspective. Films are not only seen as an art form, but they are also used in a cultural context in order to present to the viewing public historical events. These historical events may be subject to biases such as in propaganda films (D. W. Griffith’s Birth of a Nation) or they may present documentaries in which plan objectivism is the point of the film (i. e. Bush’s Brain). A film does not only transport the viewer into different cultures but gives the world a chance to see the unfolding of history through the perspective of the people who lived through it such as films documenting the effects of Hiroshima’s bomb, and the radiation which ensued directly afterwards with first person accounts. Therefore the lens of history is unclouded with such unbiased documentaries. Films are also a means of therapy and identification. Some films are so profound in their depiction of a character’s life that the audience member completely identifies with that person and a sub-cult forms based on the movie. These sub-cults can be seen with the movies The Godfather, Rocky Horror Picture Show, or even Psycho. In these films an audience member can identify or want to encompass the way of life of these characters to such an extent that they may go and join the mafia, become transsexual, or even become an integral part of the Hitchcock fan base in which pure horror is the objective of the movie, â€Å"Shots of Gothic manors lit by lightening, of shadows glimpsed under doors, or of a hand gliding along a banister, are examples of the ‘spectacular means’ of horror; they are the kind of devices that have been used so often that they have come to define the genre of the horror movie† (White The Poetics of Horror 1). Thus, movies go beyond displaying forms of a culture and begin to instigate their own subcultures. More subcultures will form from a movie that is subjective in which the audience member can come closely to identifying with the main character. The objective films in which an more omnipresent perspective of the unfolding of the lives of the main characters is not warranted to becoming a sub cultural formation but has its own merits nonetheless. In the way in which the main character Mario lives, in his final act of love for the poet Neruda is found this close perspective of the film. It is not because the film is about poetry that makes Il Postino an art film that audience members identify with but rather is it how the characters embrace their own personalities, their own loves and destinies that transforms the film from one of typical romance into great romance. The transformation of these two protagonists is the center of making this film art. Their responses to one another, their paradigm of poetry and love of life allow the viewer that voyeuristic look into the characters’ reality. This is what art does, this is why the movie is art. Even the final act of Beatrice giving Neruda Mario’s tape recorder is an act of poetry, a final salute the two friend’s past. The unfolding of their lives becomes a poignant moment in the audience member’s lives as well since the movie showed a close perspective of the protagonists’ lives. Films also have a heavy impact on a person’s life when the point of the film is to present the audience with propaganda, especially during wartime. In the British side, the official task of the War Propaganda Bureau headed by Lord Northcliffe was to alter the minds of the British into thinking that the war’s aim was to stop the nearing catastrophe the Germans and their allies created. Indeed, the war was molded in that concept and fed to the people. However, the extent of mid-altering and opinion-swaying came to an extent never before imagined. The meaning of propaganda clearly states that it the most legal way of changing the mindsets and perceptions of people; and only a powerful institution can do such a thing, for no individual or government can uphold and spread propaganda without sufficient resources. In the aim of altering or distorting the people’s emotions, a government has to adopt utmost carefulness in order to achieve its goal of merging together all the people’s sentiments and turning it into a national mindset. Propaganda is the intentional, organized attempt to mold perceptions, alter understanding and dictate behavior to garner a response that will suffice the wishes of the propagandist. War propaganda was born in the World War I. In a war, the side which employs a more powerful and thought-penetrating propaganda despite disadvantage in strength and in number, possesses the innate advantage. This was done to maintain the morale at home and be in perfect synchronization with allies abroad. The British propaganda was the most superior and was even highly regarded worldwide even by their German foes. Propaganda, as it was utilized in World War I, was the ruination of the human soul. The British were best at doing such defilement. Lumley (1933) stated that propaganda is the intentional effort to affect the minds and emotions of people. On the other hand, the Germans at the start of the war had experienced the culmination of their government’s own propaganda, the Spirit of 1914, as German propagandists made the citizens particularly the elite classes perceives the upcoming war as a means of unifying the peoples of Europe. By the end of the war, the Germans saw it as a distant memory and a misleading notion. There one could conclude regarding the striking contrasts between the propaganda of Britain and Germany. Germany, as well as the other nations of the Central Powers led its people to believe that the war to be waged was to achieve a noble cause whilst Britain led its people to see the war as a means to putting a halt to the advance of the German militaristic menace. To guarantee that no additional or unwanted knowledge flowed into the public and for the governments to at least give the people some information just for the sake of informing them, all sorts of information were filtered. Information media were tight and under scrutiny. Media, like the newspaper for instance, print filtered news that is sanctioned by the government because if otherwise, they will be the subject of penalties. The government made people read what they only want them to read. For example in Britain, censorship was the key ingredient because newspapers were run by the media barons who were more than willing to cooperate. They helped print headlines which made emotions of the British civilians surge in anger, depicting Germans in utmost cruelty and picturing the German leaders as bellicose bullies. Inevitably, across in Western Europe the same was also happening in Germany, where the authorities propagandized the British as sadistic towards their German captives. In all of the countries, propaganda was also behind the altering of casualty figures which were lessened considerably to make the people optimistic of the outcome. Just as films are maneuvered to present a specific and altered point of view during a war, or a film presents the viewer with point of view perspective of a culture, so too does a film bring forth international cultures that reflect a specific country. This view point can be seen in films such as Amelie in which the protagonist searches the film through for a boy who dropped a picture book, and the reflection of quirky natures of the main characters is portrayed and the way in which the French easily examine sexuality in the film (as in the scene where the man works in a sex shop). Films are not only used to portray and represent different cultures to the audience but they may also be used for educational purposes. This goes beyond the scope of sex education films but can also include driving safely videos, or even military outfits gain instruction from a film on how to survive out in the wild. Despite all of the facets that a film may provide for an audience member; be it differing views on culture, educational purposes, propaganda, the main purpose, and the one that makes all of the others seemingly obsolete is that of the movie’s entertainment value. Audience members attend films in order to escape their own reality for a while, the immerse themselves in another person’s perspective, their reality. Thus, movies perform a function in society of entertainment, of escapism, of fantasy, and that is their main appeal. Works Cited Carrol, Noel. Nightmare and the Horror Film: The Symbolic Biology of Fantastic Beings. Film Quarterly. Vol. 34, No. 3. pp16-25. Spring 1981. Cull, N. J. Selling War: The British Propaganda Campaign against American Neutrality in World War II. London: Oxford University Press. 1997. Il Postino. Blue Dahlia Productions. 1994. White, Dennis L. The Poetics of Horror More than Meets the Eye. â€Å"Cinema Journal† Vol. 10, No. 2. pp1-18. Spring 1971.